"..The last significant function of output is to create greater automaticity, which is one pedagogical goal in SLA. Little effort is required to execute an automatic process( involved when the learner carries out the task without awareness or attention) as it has become routinized and automatized just as the steps involved in walking towards a bike, getting out the key, unlocking it, pushing it, getting on it and riding it, requiring little thought and less time. Mclaughlin (1987:134) claimed that automatization involves “a learned response that has been built up through the consistent mapping of the same input to the same pattern of activation over many trials.” Here this notion is extended to output, meaning that consistent and successful mapping or practice of grammar to output results in automatic processing (Loschky & Bley-Vroman, 1993).
In many researchers’ opinion, automaticity benefits learning. Firstly, as automatic processing consumes fewer attentional resources than does controlled processing (involved when conscious effort and attention is required to perform a task), the more automatic performance becomes the more attentional resources left over for other purposes. For example, if one can handle the phonology and syntax of a second language automatically, then more attention can be paid to processing semantic, pragmatic, and sociolinguistic levels of communication. Secondly, when a mechanism becomes automatic it will process information very quickly and accurately. Thirdly, there are strong reasons for associating automaticity with important aspects of fluency (Skehan, 1998; Hulstijn, 1997,etc). Then what is fluency?The last significant function of output is to create greater automaticity, which is one pedagogical goal in SLA.
Little effort is required to execute an automatic process( involved when the learner carries out the task without awareness or attention) as it has become routinized and automatized just as the steps involved in walking towards a bike, getting out the key, unlocking it, pushing it, getting on it and riding it, requiring little thought and less time. Mclaughlin (1987:134) claimed that automatization involves “a learned response that has been built up through the consistent mapping of the same input to the same pattern of activation over many trials.” Here this notion is extended to output, meaning that consistent and successful mapping or practice of grammar to output results in automatic processing (Loschky & Bley-Vroman, 1993).
In many researchers’ opinion, automaticity benefits learning. Firstly, as automatic processing consumes fewer attentional resources than does controlled processing (involved when conscious effort and attention is required to perform a task), the more automatic performance becomes the more attentional resources left over for other purposes. For example, if one can handle the phonology and syntax of a second language automatically, then more attention can be paid to processing semantic, pragmatic, and sociolinguistic levels of communication. Secondly, when a mechanism becomes automatic it will process information very quickly and accurately. Thirdly, there are strong reasons for associating automaticity with important aspects of fluency (Skehan, 1998; Hulstijn, 1997,etc). Then what is fluency?.."
Wednesday, February 29, 2012
Monday, February 27, 2012
The Role of a Teacher
"He suggests that the right level of input is attained automatically when interlocutors succeed in making themselves understood in communication (Krashen, 1985:2). In his view, the Input Hypothesis is central to all of acquisition, i.e. L2 acquisition depends on comprehensible input. In the classroom, then, the teacher’s main role is to ensure that learners receive comprehensible input by providing them with listening and reading materials. However, a great many researches later challenge his hypothesis by supplying abundant evidence indicating that though necessary, comprehensible input alone is insufficient for L2 acquisition (Swain 1981,1991; Harley & Hart, 1997; Harley & Swain, 1984, etc.). They argue that processing of comprehension is different from processing of production. And the ability to understand meaning conveyed by sentences differs from the ability to use linguistic system to express meaning (Swain, 1985, 1988; Sharwood Smith, 1986; Crookes, 1991). When input is negotiated and learners produce output in interaction, they selectively “take in” portions of comprehensible input and choose correct linguistic form to express themselves. This process makes it possible for the learners to internalize what they have learnt and experienced.
Corder’s distinction between input and intake should be mentioned here. He defines input as what is available to the learner, whereas intake refers to what is actually internalized by the learner (Corder, 1967).This distinction is justified by huge amount of evidence in foreign language learning practice. It is convincingly argued that L2 acquisition will not occur even if with input at the right quantity and quality but without being internalized by the learners and becoming part of their interlanguage system.
On the whole, input is absolutely necessary and there is no theory or approach to SLA that does not recognize the importance of input. In Schwartz’s view (1993), the input feeds or nurtures an innate system to aid its growth. But input alone cannot facilitate second language learning. It will not function to the full in SLA until it gets involved in interaction."
Corder’s distinction between input and intake should be mentioned here. He defines input as what is available to the learner, whereas intake refers to what is actually internalized by the learner (Corder, 1967).This distinction is justified by huge amount of evidence in foreign language learning practice. It is convincingly argued that L2 acquisition will not occur even if with input at the right quantity and quality but without being internalized by the learners and becoming part of their interlanguage system.
On the whole, input is absolutely necessary and there is no theory or approach to SLA that does not recognize the importance of input. In Schwartz’s view (1993), the input feeds or nurtures an innate system to aid its growth. But input alone cannot facilitate second language learning. It will not function to the full in SLA until it gets involved in interaction."
Wednesday, February 8, 2012
Wednesday, February 1, 2012
Words as "pictures"
I was looking at my previous blog posts and I was disappointed at how
they all seem a little "impersonal"...For this post,
I'd like to attempt to rely on my own ideas on teaching..sans cut-and paste..
Not long ago I was working an individual who seemed to have a sub-benchmark level 3 understanding of the English language. He was discouraged that his friends, in the same program, were excelling at a faster rate than he was. Compounding this, I sensed he felt that this was effecting his confidence.
When I was younger, I was sometimes plagued by a feeling of low self-esteem with regard to various academic endeavors.. I tended to set artificial limits on what I was capable of learning. Moving beyond these barriers was, I feel, an important part of my growth as an individual..
My instinct, working with this student, was to go beyond the lesson at-hand and attempt to instill some confidence because this seemed to be the dominant limiting factor in his learning.
As we proceeded though his exercises, I took every opportunity I could to genuinely encourage him and complimented any progress made (even if small). When not able to pronounce a given word, I asked that he repeat the proper pronunciation after me, then returning to the text.
Once he was able to properly say a given word, whenever this word was encountered again, in his reading, I reminded him that he already "knew" how to say it. This "method" definitively seemed to raise his spirits, and improve his progress.
When we see the word "apple"...do we read it? letter-by-letter? I think once a person "knows" a word, the thought of it seems virtually connected to the idea of it--and its pronunciation. When I see the word "apple" it seems an actual apple is triggered in my thoughts. I certainly don't "read" the individual letters phonetically because I "know" it..
The idea of seeing a word "as a picture"...resonated strongly with me as a teaching "tool"..
I suppose one could characterize this as just that--another "tool" in a teacher's "bag of tricks", yet I genuinely feel it was more significant, in that the idea dawned from the fact I "cared" about this individuals state-of-mind..
In the past I have known the "low" feeling of thinking I am not capable and have this effect my own learning progress. Utilizing empathy and breaking these "negative" beliefs, I therefor conclude, is a central role of any good teacher..
they all seem a little "impersonal"...For this post,
I'd like to attempt to rely on my own ideas on teaching..sans cut-and paste..
Not long ago I was working an individual who seemed to have a sub-benchmark level 3 understanding of the English language. He was discouraged that his friends, in the same program, were excelling at a faster rate than he was. Compounding this, I sensed he felt that this was effecting his confidence.
When I was younger, I was sometimes plagued by a feeling of low self-esteem with regard to various academic endeavors.. I tended to set artificial limits on what I was capable of learning. Moving beyond these barriers was, I feel, an important part of my growth as an individual..
My instinct, working with this student, was to go beyond the lesson at-hand and attempt to instill some confidence because this seemed to be the dominant limiting factor in his learning.
As we proceeded though his exercises, I took every opportunity I could to genuinely encourage him and complimented any progress made (even if small). When not able to pronounce a given word, I asked that he repeat the proper pronunciation after me, then returning to the text.
Once he was able to properly say a given word, whenever this word was encountered again, in his reading, I reminded him that he already "knew" how to say it. This "method" definitively seemed to raise his spirits, and improve his progress.
When we see the word "apple"...do we read it? letter-by-letter? I think once a person "knows" a word, the thought of it seems virtually connected to the idea of it--and its pronunciation. When I see the word "apple" it seems an actual apple is triggered in my thoughts. I certainly don't "read" the individual letters phonetically because I "know" it..
The idea of seeing a word "as a picture"...resonated strongly with me as a teaching "tool"..
I suppose one could characterize this as just that--another "tool" in a teacher's "bag of tricks", yet I genuinely feel it was more significant, in that the idea dawned from the fact I "cared" about this individuals state-of-mind..
In the past I have known the "low" feeling of thinking I am not capable and have this effect my own learning progress. Utilizing empathy and breaking these "negative" beliefs, I therefor conclude, is a central role of any good teacher..
Saturday, January 28, 2012
C1M3
1. Describe the difference between someone who is a native-like user of a language and someone who is just learning it. What does “competent” mean to you? You will need this definition for an assignment at the end of the module.
One major factor in being fully linguistically competent is the ability to understand cultural references within language. Other factors essential to a "full" understanding of language is tonality (the ability to detect sarcasm, humour, etc).
The ability to synthesize, or "put together" concepts, and respond, or argue these concepts. Of course grammatical knowledge is an essential facet of strong linguistic competence.
2. Once you’ve got a picture in your mind of someone who is “competent” in a language, you can check out the official definition of the word from the Online Merriam-Webster Dictionary:
(From the Merriam-Webster Dictionary)
1: proper or rightly pertinent
2: having requisite or adequate ability or qualities : fit (a competent teacher) (a competent piece of work)
3: legally qualified or adequate (a competent witness)
4: having the capacity to function or develop in a particular way; specifically : having the capacity to respond (as by producing an antibody) to an antigenic determinant
This definition also references another definition, competent--for language learners, and is as follows:
[more competent; most competent] 1 : having the necessary ability or skills : able to do something well or well enough to meet a standard
3. Think about a group of students you’d like to teach. What is likely to be their main goal for learning English?
One of the main goals my current students is to be able to function adequately in a post-secondary education environment. Though the CLDs point towards a minimum level 8 being most appropriate for post-secondary education, I'm certain many enter university below this level. That is not to say they cannot succeed. When a person is motivated to learn, or even simply linguistically talented, much learning can occur. Meeting the goal in being proficient at CLB level 8 would likely be a central goal in my students.
4. What kinds of language tasks would these students be able to perform competently if they reached their goal?
Benchmark 8 tasks are specified by the following:
SPEAKING
-I am comfortable speaking about almost any topic that comes up in normal conversation in social situations or at work.
-I can manage a conversation, check comprehension, encourage others and handle minor conflicts.
-I am able to address large groups or participate in group discussions.
-I can speak on familiar topics at both concrete and abstract levels (15 - 20 minutes).
-I can present information, give instructions, propose and recommend.
-I can provide descriptions, opinions and explanations. I can synthesize abstract complex ideas and hypothesize.
-I can ask questions, analyze and compare information in order to make decisions.
-I have an expanded inventory of concrete, idiomatic and conceptual language.
People rarely have trouble understanding me.
-I am comfortable talking on the phone.
LISTENING
-When someone is speaking, I can understand the main points, details, purpose, and attitude.
-I can recognize different levels of formality.
-I can understand some technical conversations, especially about my line of work.
-I can understand abstract and complex ideas on a familiar topic.
-I recognize other people’s moods, attitudes and feelings.
-I can understand many local idioms and expressions and can follow detailed stories of general interest.
-I can follow detailed and extended instructions if they are clear and coherent.
-I can usually understand phone messages, even on unfamiliar, non-routine subjects.
-I can read popular newspapers, magazine
READING
-I can follow main ideas, key words and important details in a text of 2-5 pages
on a familiar subject.
-I can read popular newspapers, magazine articles.
-I can find relevant points in a text, but sometimes I need clarification
of idioms or cultural references.
-I can locate and integrate several specific pieces of information in a table or
directory across paragraphs
-I am able to follow an extended set of multistep instructions for an established process.
-I read in English to get information for an established process.
-I read in English to get information, to improve my English and develop my reading skills.
-I use a unilingual dictionary for vocabulary building.
-I can read about abstract, conceptual or technical topics.
-I can infer the writer's intention in messages containing general opinions and assessments.
WRITING
-I can write routine business letters and Listening.
-I can link sentences and 3 – 4 paragraphs to form coherent texts to express ideas on
familiar, abstract topics with some support for main ideas and an
appropriate sense of audience.
-I can write down a set of simple communication or simple procedural text
instructions based on clear oral of greater length.
-I can fill out complex forms.
-I can extract key information and relevant detail from a page-long text or 10 – 15
minute oral presentation, and write an outline or a one-paragraph summary.
-I reduce information to the main points with no major omissions.
-I demonstrate good control over common I can write numbers. sentence patterns, grammar, and spelling.
-I can write an effective resume and cover letter.
-I can write an incident report or memo.
5. What types of social or cultural knowledge might they need in addition to structural and functional knowledge about the language?
Now read the first two sections of the attached article by Vesna Baraic and Jelena Mihaljevic Djigunovic, and answer the questions that follow. The answers do not need to be submitted, but working through the questions thoroughly will ensure that you have considered the essential points.
6. How did each of the theorists mentioned in the first section contribute to the understanding of communicative competence?
(from course material)
By focusing on language usage in a range of communication contexts, new ideas about learning emerged. Social aspects of language were researched. Affective or psychological factors that contribute to learning became more important. “Language for specific purposes” gained momentum as a way of thinking more precisely about both the motivations for learning and the structures that might be needed in different situations. At the same time, the Canadian experiment with French immersion was underway in public schools, trying to make language learning as authentic and culturally rich as possible. The aim of language teaching was increasingly about helping students to become competent communicators in real- life settings.
The term “communicative competence” was coined during this time as a deliberate contrast to the earlier focus on “linguistic competence” and to reflect the new, social view of language use. The focus changed from knowledge about a language to skill in using language appropriately in different settings. This view necessitated a significant shift in language teaching methodology too. The focus of language instruction now needed to be on authentic interactions, real materials and meaningful activities.
7. Provide a definition for each of the following: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence.
Grammatical competence is the ability to recognize and produce the distinctive grammatical structures of a language and to use them.
Sociolinguistic competence is knowing how to use and respond to language appropriately, given the setting, topic, and varous social and conversational context.
Discourse competence relates to Textual discourse competence --the ability to interpret written texts of different genres.
strategic competence is the ability to solve communication problems despite an inadequate command of the language in question.
8. What areas comprise language ability, according to Bachman and Palmer
(1996)?
Linguistic competence -----> Accuracy of grammar Intelligibility of speech
Textual competence --------> Organization of discourse: coherence Cohesion
Socio-cultural competence ----> Appropriateness
9. How does the CEF model of 2001 manage the balance between knowledge
about language and ability to use language?
One major factor in being fully linguistically competent is the ability to understand cultural references within language. Other factors essential to a "full" understanding of language is tonality (the ability to detect sarcasm, humour, etc).
The ability to synthesize, or "put together" concepts, and respond, or argue these concepts. Of course grammatical knowledge is an essential facet of strong linguistic competence.
2. Once you’ve got a picture in your mind of someone who is “competent” in a language, you can check out the official definition of the word from the Online Merriam-Webster Dictionary:
(From the Merriam-Webster Dictionary)
1: proper or rightly pertinent
2: having requisite or adequate ability or qualities : fit (a competent teacher) (a competent piece of work)
3: legally qualified or adequate (a competent witness)
4: having the capacity to function or develop in a particular way; specifically : having the capacity to respond (as by producing an antibody) to an antigenic determinant
This definition also references another definition, competent--for language learners, and is as follows:
[more competent; most competent] 1 : having the necessary ability or skills : able to do something well or well enough to meet a standard
3. Think about a group of students you’d like to teach. What is likely to be their main goal for learning English?
One of the main goals my current students is to be able to function adequately in a post-secondary education environment. Though the CLDs point towards a minimum level 8 being most appropriate for post-secondary education, I'm certain many enter university below this level. That is not to say they cannot succeed. When a person is motivated to learn, or even simply linguistically talented, much learning can occur. Meeting the goal in being proficient at CLB level 8 would likely be a central goal in my students.
4. What kinds of language tasks would these students be able to perform competently if they reached their goal?
Benchmark 8 tasks are specified by the following:
SPEAKING
-I am comfortable speaking about almost any topic that comes up in normal conversation in social situations or at work.
-I can manage a conversation, check comprehension, encourage others and handle minor conflicts.
-I am able to address large groups or participate in group discussions.
-I can speak on familiar topics at both concrete and abstract levels (15 - 20 minutes).
-I can present information, give instructions, propose and recommend.
-I can provide descriptions, opinions and explanations. I can synthesize abstract complex ideas and hypothesize.
-I can ask questions, analyze and compare information in order to make decisions.
-I have an expanded inventory of concrete, idiomatic and conceptual language.
People rarely have trouble understanding me.
-I am comfortable talking on the phone.
LISTENING
-When someone is speaking, I can understand the main points, details, purpose, and attitude.
-I can recognize different levels of formality.
-I can understand some technical conversations, especially about my line of work.
-I can understand abstract and complex ideas on a familiar topic.
-I recognize other people’s moods, attitudes and feelings.
-I can understand many local idioms and expressions and can follow detailed stories of general interest.
-I can follow detailed and extended instructions if they are clear and coherent.
-I can usually understand phone messages, even on unfamiliar, non-routine subjects.
-I can read popular newspapers, magazine
READING
-I can follow main ideas, key words and important details in a text of 2-5 pages
on a familiar subject.
-I can read popular newspapers, magazine articles.
-I can find relevant points in a text, but sometimes I need clarification
of idioms or cultural references.
-I can locate and integrate several specific pieces of information in a table or
directory across paragraphs
-I am able to follow an extended set of multistep instructions for an established process.
-I read in English to get information for an established process.
-I read in English to get information, to improve my English and develop my reading skills.
-I use a unilingual dictionary for vocabulary building.
-I can read about abstract, conceptual or technical topics.
-I can infer the writer's intention in messages containing general opinions and assessments.
WRITING
-I can write routine business letters and Listening.
-I can link sentences and 3 – 4 paragraphs to form coherent texts to express ideas on
familiar, abstract topics with some support for main ideas and an
appropriate sense of audience.
-I can write down a set of simple communication or simple procedural text
instructions based on clear oral of greater length.
-I can fill out complex forms.
-I can extract key information and relevant detail from a page-long text or 10 – 15
minute oral presentation, and write an outline or a one-paragraph summary.
-I reduce information to the main points with no major omissions.
-I demonstrate good control over common I can write numbers. sentence patterns, grammar, and spelling.
-I can write an effective resume and cover letter.
-I can write an incident report or memo.
5. What types of social or cultural knowledge might they need in addition to structural and functional knowledge about the language?
Now read the first two sections of the attached article by Vesna Baraic and Jelena Mihaljevic Djigunovic, and answer the questions that follow. The answers do not need to be submitted, but working through the questions thoroughly will ensure that you have considered the essential points.
6. How did each of the theorists mentioned in the first section contribute to the understanding of communicative competence?
(from course material)
By focusing on language usage in a range of communication contexts, new ideas about learning emerged. Social aspects of language were researched. Affective or psychological factors that contribute to learning became more important. “Language for specific purposes” gained momentum as a way of thinking more precisely about both the motivations for learning and the structures that might be needed in different situations. At the same time, the Canadian experiment with French immersion was underway in public schools, trying to make language learning as authentic and culturally rich as possible. The aim of language teaching was increasingly about helping students to become competent communicators in real- life settings.
The term “communicative competence” was coined during this time as a deliberate contrast to the earlier focus on “linguistic competence” and to reflect the new, social view of language use. The focus changed from knowledge about a language to skill in using language appropriately in different settings. This view necessitated a significant shift in language teaching methodology too. The focus of language instruction now needed to be on authentic interactions, real materials and meaningful activities.
7. Provide a definition for each of the following: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence.
Grammatical competence is the ability to recognize and produce the distinctive grammatical structures of a language and to use them.
Sociolinguistic competence is knowing how to use and respond to language appropriately, given the setting, topic, and varous social and conversational context.
Discourse competence relates to Textual discourse competence --the ability to interpret written texts of different genres.
strategic competence is the ability to solve communication problems despite an inadequate command of the language in question.
8. What areas comprise language ability, according to Bachman and Palmer
(1996)?
Linguistic competence -----> Accuracy of grammar Intelligibility of speech
Textual competence --------> Organization of discourse: coherence Cohesion
Socio-cultural competence ----> Appropriateness
9. How does the CEF model of 2001 manage the balance between knowledge
about language and ability to use language?
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